DESCRIPTION

Fig. 2 Montage display shows the dorsal (top), ventral (bottom) and the head (inset) of a male Jungle Nightjar. The specimen was dead when found and collected by Mr. Benjamin Ho at the National Institute of Education (NIE) of the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore on 12 April 2011. (Pictures © Ang Yuchen, 2011)

Adult male (C. i. indicus)

• ♦ Forehead, crown and nape: greyish-brown streaked blackish-brown, broadly so on crown
• ♦ Hindneck: indistinct pale buff or tawny-buff collar
• ♦ Mantle, back, rump and uppertail coverts: greyish-brown, speckled and faintly barred pale brown, streaked blackish-brown.
• ♦ Lesser coverts: brown, speckled pale buff, tawny or greyish-white
• ♦ Wing coverts (remaining):
  • a) Innerwebs: greyish-brown mottled pale buff or greyish-white
  • b) Outerwebs: brown, boldly spotted pale buff, pale tawny or greyish-white on tips; spots smudged/vermiculated brown.
• ♦ Scapulars: blackish-brown, broadly edged greyish-white vermiculated brown
• ♦ Primaries:
  • a) brown, large white spot, almost midway along feather, on innerweb of P10 and across both webs of P9-P7, P10 often spotted buff along edge of outerweb
  • b) P9-P7 regularly spotted tawny above white spot
  • c) inner six primaries regularly barred tawny
• ♦ Secondaries: brown-tipped with greyish mottling, regularly barred tawny, barring becoming paler on inner secondaries
• ♦ Tertials: brown densely mottled greyish-brown
• ♦ Tail:
  • a) brown, indistinctly barred pale tawny or greyish-brown
  • b) R5-R2 tipped white (17-30mm), distally speckled or washed brown, often broadly so
  • c) central pair (R1) greyish-brown, mottled and barred brown
• ♦ Lores and ear coverts: brown, speckled pale buff/pale tawny-buff
• ♦ Submoustachial stripe: buffish white
• ♦ Chin and throat: brown barred buff
• ♦ Throat (lower): large white patch on either side - lower feather are tipped dark brown, with a buff or pale tawny subterminal band
• ♦ Breast: greyish-brown, finely barred brown and pale buff
• ♦ Belly flanks, undertail- and underwing-coverts : buff barred brown

Adult female

• Similar to the male except:
• ♦ Primaries: P10-P7 with small tawny or pale tawny spot, often heavily washed brown on innerweb
• ♦ Tail: R5-R2 narrowly tipped brownish-white or brownish-buff

Geographical Variation

• C. i. indicus: Described above. A generally brownish race and not too variable in colour, although greyish birds with whiter markings do occur.
• C. i. hazarae: Larger and darker brown than the nominate (i.e. C. i. indicus). The markings on the back are heavier, the barring on the tail broader and the throat-patches are tawnier.
• C. i. jotaka: Larger, darker and darker-breasted than the nominate.
• C. i. kelaarti: Smaller than the nominate and darker grey with whiter markings. The barring on the tail is heavier.
• C. i. phalaena: Smaller than the nominate, and perhaps more rufous brown.

DIAGNOSIS

Fig. 3.1 General topography and morphology of nightjars (Caprimulgidae). The inset image illustrates an example of a nightjar's primary feather. (From Cleere, 1998)

ADULT. (male nominate)	IN FLIGHT † (male = top left; female = bottom right)	DESCRIPTION. (includes dimorphic differences between gender)
Fig. 3.2 Jungle Nightjar		"The identification of the species can be accurately determined by the greyish ground colour, the lack of a hindneck collar, the bold, buff spots on otherwise uniform wing-coverts and the broad white tips to the four outer tail feathers" (Cleere, 2002). Length: 28 – 32 cm Weight: male 60-108 g, female 65 -92 g. Sexually dimorphic The male has four outer primaries with large white spot (inner web only on outermost one) and white tips to all but central pair of tail feathers. The female has tawny wing spots and brownish-white or brownish-buff tips to tail feathers (similar to juvenile).

• ... and in comparison to other similar species such as...

ADULT. (male nominate)	IN FLIGHT † (male = top left; female = bottom right)	DESCRIPTION. (includes dimorphic differences between gender)
Fig. 3.3 Indian Nightjar		Indian Nightjar (C. asiaticus) is smaller with a broad buff/tawny hindneck collar. The male has smaller white spots on the four outer primaries and broad white tips to the two outer tail feathers. The female has smaller buff spots on the four outer primaries and white tips to the two outer tail feathers.
Fig. 3.4 Large-tailed Nightjar Fig. 3.5 Jerdon Nightjar		Large-tailed Nightjar (C. macrurus) (top) and Jerdon's Nightjar (C. atripennis) (bottom) lack the bold greyish-white, tawny/buffish spotting on the wing coverts. The males have broad white tips to the two outer tail feathers. The females have buff/buffish-white tips.
Fig. 3.6 Savanna Nightjar		Savanna Nightjar (C. affinis) is smaller and is less boldly spotted on the wing coverts. The male usually has the two outer tail feathers entirely white. The female has no white on the tail
Fig. 3.7 European Nightjar		European Nightjar (C. europaeus) is paler and greyer; its wings coverts less heavily spotted. The male has a white spot on the three outer primaries and white tips to the two outer tail feathers. The female has no white on the wings and tail.
Fig. 3.8 Philippine Nightjar		Philippine Nightjar (C. manillensis) lacks the bold spotting on the wing coverts and shows a buffish line across the forewing and white tips to the two outer tail feathers.

VOICE

• Song (of male): consist of "a rapid series of loud “tuk, tuk, tuk, tuk” notes, also a repetitive “tukoo, tukoo, tukoo” that occasionally ends with a hollow “wowowowow”."
  • ♦ sings from perches, from ground and in flight
  • ♦ may be heard mainly at dusk and dawn and throughout the night, especially when there is plenty of moonlight
  • ♦ migratory races occasionally sing briefly on the wintering grounds
• Calls: consist of "rapid sets of deep “quor” or soft “you” sounds."; male's flight call in Sri Lanka noted as “hóó, hóó, hóó, hóóteter”.
  Listen to call: HERE

• ★ In Singapore, there are three other resident nightjars native to the country (The Birds of Singapore, 2010). Listed below are these nightjars and the sites that contain their respective calls:
  • ♦ Large-tailed Nightjar (C. macrurus): HERE
  • ♦ Savanna Nightjar (C. affinis): HERE
  • ♦ Malaysian Eared Nightjar (Eurostopodus temminckii): HERE

The Internet Bird Collection

• In addition to images, this website also provides additional tracks and videos on the Jungle Nightjar and its calls/songs.

BIOLOGY

Habitat

• Recorded from sea level to 3300 m.
  • ♦ mainly forest, woods and wooded country, in open woodland, deciduous , pine and mixed bamboo forest, glades and thick brush jungle
  • ♦ open scrubland, farmland and cultivation, mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata) orchards and teak plantations.
  • ♦ sparsely vegetated ravines and on jungle-clad hillsides (e.g. in Himalayas)
  • ♦ stony fields (e.g. in Sri Lanka)
  • ♦ large cities (e.g. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia), especially by wintering and passage birds
  • ★ In Singapore, it was mostly heard and/or observed in areas with higher vegetation density such as:
    • a) Central Catchment Nature Reserve (e.g. Lower Peirce Reservoir, MacRitchie and Sime Forest areas)
    • b) Bidadari Cemetery (e.g. 2009; 2010)
    • c) Chinese Gardens
    • d) Singapore Botanic Gardens
    • e) Sentosa

General habits

• Crepuscular and nocturnal.
  • ♦ After dusk, it prefers squatting in the middle of cross-country earth tracks - its eyes glow red in the headlights of an oncoming car, and is skilled at evading by flip-flap zigzags when close to being run over.
  • ♦ During daytime, it will roost in a shady spot as roost squatted lengthwise on a bough, OR on the ground among dry leaves and stones where its coloration matches with the background.
  • ★ In Singapore, it has been noted to roost on a tree branch about 7 metres from the ground (Tsang, 2009) - higher roosts are preferred to lower ones such as rocks, tree stumps etc. Indeed, local birders, Koh et al. (2008) noted that this roosting preference was different from the resident Large-tailed Nightjars (Caprimulgus macrurus), which are usually seen on the ground.
• Flight and non-flight motions:
  • ♦ Flight is utterly silent akin to the soft-plumaged owls, except for an occasional hit of the wing-tips during the rapid twists and turns.
  • ♦ Running the occasional short distances is possible in spite of their very short legs; for instance, at the nest site, "with a shuffling, waddling gait, often with the wings raised almost vertically back-to-back".

Feeding habits

• Diet includes "moths, beetles (including Scarabaeidae ), bugs, flying ants, cicadas, grasshoppers, locusts and small wasps"; also, feeds on insects attracted to artificial lights.
  • ★ In Singapore, they have also been observed to take advantage of a termite hatch event - the nightjars were seen "catching the termites at least a half hour before their usual dusk activity period" (Subaraj, 2006).
• Hunting is either done close to ground, OR high up over trees - "its foraging flight is extremely agile and buoyant".

Reproduction

• Courtship behaviour:
  • The male glides with his wings held in a V above his back during courtship flight; his tail will be fanned and angled while calling simultaneously (See Voice). It has been observed to frequently wing-clap.
• Breeding months:
  • ♦ Japan: late May – early Aug
  • ♦ Himalayas: Mar – Jun (mainly Apr – May)
  • ♦ Pakistan: late April – Jul
  • ♦ India: Feb – May (mainly Mar – Apr); late Feb – Aug in S India.
  • ♦ Sri Lanka: Feb – Jul
• Nest site:
  • ♦ If nest is build: it is observed to be "near or on rock, beneath vegetation, in thicket, on stony slope or in ravine".
  • ♦ If no nest is build: eggs are observed to be "laid on leaf litter, bare ground, or ashes following bush fires".
• Egg attributes:
  • ♦ Clutch size: 1-2 eggs
  • ♦ Shape: elliptical
  • ♦ Colour: creamy-white, spotted and marbled grey, brown and umber . Eggs have been described by several researchers as (Holyoak, 2001)
  • a) C. i. indicus (and C. i. kelaarti):
    • (i) "pale red-brown ground-colour" OR
    • (ii) "being pinkish-white with rather sparse brown spots" OR
    • (iii) "warm cream to pinkish-buff, spotted irregularly with scattered blackish-brown spots" OR
    • (iv) "pale creamy to warm buff, spattered irregularly all over with blackish- or reddish-brown spots"
  • b) C. i. hazarae (and C. i. jotaka):
    • (i) "White, pale cream" OR
    • (ii) "pale greyish-white marbled with dark grey or grey-brown and with overlying spots of clear grey"
• Incubation:
  • ♦ Period: usually 16 – 19 days - generally by female, male taking turns at dusk and dawn; chicks covered in brown and buff down, fledges at c. 17 days
  • ♦ Behaviour:
    • (i) When undisturbed, incubating birds will "adopt a rather upright posture with its foreparts erect, suggesting a lichen-covered stone or a piece of wood".
    • (ii) When threatened, incubating birds sit very tightly and rely on cryptic coloration as the main defense mechanism. It will continue to watch the potential threat through half-closed eyelids - ever-ready to spring up and fly to a perch in a nearby tree (e.g. in danger of being trodden upon).

• "Adaptable, often occupying areas of deforestation and cultivation"
• Pakistan: locally common summer visitor in NE part
• India: common - resident in many regions, locally migratory in others
• Sri Lanka: locally common (perhaps more in E)
• China: fairly widespread throughout^[3]
• Japanese islands: local but not uncommon summer visitor
  (e.g. Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu and Hokkaido)
• Russia: locally common to abundant in the E and SE parts
• Malaysia: fairly common passage migrant and winter visitor throughout
• Philippines: rare winter visitor
• Borneo: widespread winter visitor, possibly more regular at higher altitudes
• ★ Singapore: Uncommon passage migrant and winter visitor (Subaraj et al., 2006)

• Listed as 'Least Concern' on the IUCN Red List in 2009.
• Justification: Range size[a], population trend[b] and population size[c] of the species do not approach the thresholds of the ‘Vulnerable’ category^[4].

TYPE INFORMATION

Dataset

• Data Publisher: University of Michigan Museum of Zoology
• Dataset: Bird specimens
• Institution code: UMMZ
• Collection code: Bird
• Catalogue No: 142097
• Basis of record: PreservedSpecimen (interpreted as Specimen)
• Collector name: Koelz, Walter N
• Date collected: 2 / 4 / 1953 (interpreted as Apr 2, 1953)

Taxonomy

• Scientific name: Caprimulgus indicus hazarae
• Specimen type status: Holotype
• Sex: Male

Geospatial

• Continent: Asia
• Country: India
• State/Province: Mizoram
• County: Lushai Hills
• Locality: Blue Mountain
• Latitude: 23.390356
• Longitude: 92.718309

FOOTNOTES

1. ^ A recent study carried out by Barrowclough et al. (2006) suggests a possible redefinition of the genus Caprimulgus with many consequent nomenclatural divisions (Christidis & Boles, 2008). But, since C. indicus was exempted from the study, its generic epithet and position are uncertain; it will be retained in Caprmulgus until more species are studied.
2. ^ C. i. jotaka has been elevated to species by Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) to C. jotaka. Differences between C. indicus and C. jotaka are demonstrated through their songs (e.g. the former gives a disyllabic series compared to the monosyllabic series of the latter) and the hues of their eggs - the difference is unusual if both specimens were derived from the species since the egg type of the Caprimulgidae birds tend to be conservative (Rasmussen, 2005; Martens & Bahr, 2007). However, this is still inconclusive as many websites (e.g. ITIS, GBIF, IUCN Red List) still regard it as a subspecies of C. indicus.
3. ^ C. indicus is one of the species protected in the Sichuan province.
4. ^ Criterion for species listed as ‘Vulnerable’:
   
   • (a) Extent of occurrence is <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation
   • (b) >30% decline over ten years or three generations.
   • (c) <10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure.

LITERATURE & REFERENCES

GENBANK RECORDS

COMMENTS & DISCUSSION