Stork-billed kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensis (Linnaeus,1766)
Meet Singapore's largest kingfisher!





Video [1] credit: Hans Lin

Did you know? This bird is named as such because of its long and stout bill, which resembles that of a stork!



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Painted stork (top). Photo credit: Wikimedia CommonsStork-billed kingfisher (bottom). Photo credits: Dillen Ng (Permission Granted)
Figure 1



1. Biology


1.1. Feeding behavior


The vast bill of this kingfisher makes a formidable weapon in dealing with its preys [1] . Its diet is primarily made up of marine and freshwater organisms (e.g. frogs, fish, crabs and shrimps). Although a kingfisher, this species is not a fish specialist [2] . When primary food resources become scarce, it hunts for small mammals (mainly rodents) and young birds – sometimes marauded out of tree holes [3] . This thus highlights its range of skills to hunt in different types of terrain.

Being a sit-and-wait predator, it perches quietly while hunting and is often inconspicuous despite its size. When it spots its prey, it plunges down from its perch, and its heavy bodyweight enables it to swoop down fast on a fish swimming near the water surface (read documentation). Like other kingfishers, it has the ability to hover above the water body while searching for its prey [4] . Once successful, it would carry its prey back and immobilize it by striking it against the perch a few times [5] before swallowing it whole. The tapping noise caused by the prey being beaten and bruised can be heard from some distance [6] .

Check out an interesting observation of a stork-billed kingfisher rejecting its prey.



Feeding behavior of Stork-billed kingfisher. Video [2] credit: 13seaeagle
Fun fact: an average family of 6 stork-billed kingfishers can eat up to 100 fish a day![7]

1.2. Nesting and breeding

The stork-billed kingfisher usually lives in a family with an average of 6 members [8] . Like many other kingfishers, they are highly territorial and have been known to fiercely chase away large predators up to the size of White-bellied Sea Eagle and Adjutant Stork [9] . The species is also monogamous, and both sexes usually work together to excavate the nest cavity in a river bank, decaying tree, termite nest. A breeding pair has been recorded to build their nest out of a small crack in a brick wall by working 5 to 6 hours a day for several weeks [10] . Sometimes, a natural tree hollow would also be used. The incubating chamber would typically be located at the end of the tunnel. Each clutch usually contains 2 to 5 eggs, which are glossy, translucent white and near-spherical in shape [11] . Both parents would incubate the eggs during the day while only the female incubates the eggs during the night [12] . The breeding season varies depending on its residing location [13] , but it ranges from January to September.






Mating behavior of Stork-billed kingfishers. Video [3] credit: Simplenaturewatch

In Singapore, an overall increasing trend in its population has been observed [14] . Although breeding has been reported, nest were not found [15] until 2016, and it was subsequently reported at the same location (Pulau Ubin) a year later.

Stork-billed-Kingfisher-chicks-in-nest-1.jpg
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Stork-billed kingfisher chicks in a nest (Taken in Thailand). Photo credit: Alex Vargas [Permission pending]
Figure 2

1.3. Habitat

It is widely but sparsely distributed in tropical south Asia ranging from India and Sri Lanka to Indonesia [16] . In order to fish, they usually live by the edge of water bodies. Being a moderately forest dependent species, they are usually vulnerable to development, deforestation and water pollution [17] . They are also known to inhabit artificial aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, for instance plantations and drain canals. In Singapore, they can typically be found at waterbodies in or near forests, parks, gardens and mangroves [18] .




Two Stork-billed kingfishers in a territorial strife. Video [4] credit: Simplenaturewatch
Fun fact: they occur in altitudes from 0 to 1200 meters (not restricted to lowland)



2. Description



2.1. Diagnostics


  • General

2.png
Photo credit: Kwong Wai Chong [Permission pending]
Figure 3

(1) Forehead, crown, lores, cheeks and ear-coverts: dark olive-brown
(2) Collar around hindneck and sides of neck: dark yellow-buff
(3) Mantle: dull greenish-blue
(4) Bill: scarlet, darker towards the tip
(5) Eyes: red eye ring

1.png
Photo credit: Amar Singh HSS [Permission granted]
Figure 4

(6) Primaries and secondaries: dark-brown edged with blue (flight photo)
(7) Lower-back and rump: brilliant pale azure-blue (conspicuous during flight) [8]
(8) Chin and throat: pale yellow or buff
(9) Rest of underparts including underwing-coverts: rich orange buff
(10) Legs and feet: orange-red

  • Between kingfishers commonly found in Singapore

Distinct morphological differences exist between these three species, which can be easily told apart even by an untrained eye.

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(Left) Collared kingfisher. Photo credit: Kwong Wai Chong (Permission pending)
(Right) Common kingfisher. Photo credit: Lim Swee Kun (Permission pending)
Figure 5

  • Within genus

Common name
 Great-billed kingfisher
 Stork-billed kingfisher
 Brown-winged kingfisher
Species name
 P. melanorhyncha
 P. capensis
 P. amauropterus
Photo comparison
greatbillled.jpg

Photo credit: Eddy Swan [Permission pending]
storkbilled.jpg

Photo credit: Francis Yap (Permission pending)
brownwinged.jpg

Photo credit: Wikimedia Commons
Head
 Creamy white
 Dark olive brown
 Orange yellow
Bill
 Black, sometimes with a small dark red spot at the base
 Scarlet, darker towards the tip
 Coral-red bill with dark tip
Plumage
 Dull greenish brown mantle, underpart creamy-white
 Dull blue to greenish-blue mantle, with orange yellow underparts
 Dark chocolate brown mantle, orange yellow underparts
Range
 Endemic to Sulawesi region of Indonesia
 Sparsely distributed from India to Southeast Asia
 North eastern coast of India through Bangladesh and
Myanmar to the Malay Peninsula
Figure 6
Note: the Great-billed kingfisher and Brown-winged kingfisher cannot be found in Singapore.

  • Juvenile

The Stork-billed Kingfisher juvenile is characterised by its scaly breast, slightly more saturated feather colors, duller bill and less prominent red eye ring [19] .

juve.jpg
Photo credit: Stijn De Win [Permission pending]
Figure 7

  • Between sexes

Females are slightly larger, have larger beaks and their mantle is duller, usually more brownish or greenish [20] (Image not available).

  • Between subspecies

Most merely differ in plumage detail, but P. C. gigantea of the Sulu Islands is most distinct - has a white head, neck and underparts [21] .


subsp.jpg
Photo credit: Djop Tabaranza [Permission pending]
Figure 8

2.2. Vocalisation

It would usually first attract attention with its harsh cries [22] . The call of this noisy kingfisher is made up of a low and far reaching "peer-peer-por" (territorial song) (**XC369408**) repeated every 5 seconds or so [23] as well as a loud, raucous shrieking ‘laugh’ ke-ke-ke-ke-ke with explosive accent on the intial ke [24] (**XC357465**).







3. Distribution and range

3.1. Local

An uncommon resident in Singapore, this bird is often seen on the northern and western coasts, and is fairly common on the surrounding islets [25]
Sighted at: Central Catchment Forest, Kranji Marsh, Singapore Botanic Gardens, Japanese Garden, Jurong Eco Garden, Hindhede Quarry, Pulau Ubin, Sungei Buloh any patch of suitable habitat [26] .

* Disclaimer: this list is not exhaustive*




3.2. Global

The continental range of stork-billed kingfisher is mainly restricted to South Asia, from India and Sri Lanka to Indonesia [27] .
Distribution.jpg
Global distribution and range of stork-billed kingfisher. Photo credit: eBird (Fair use) [28] .
Figure 9



4. Conservation status



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Photo credit: IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Free use)
Figure 10


Although it is evaluated as Least Concern mainly due to its extremely large range, global population is decreasing and some populations are threatened by ongoing habitat destruction [29] . In Singapore, it is a Uncommon Resident [30]


5. Taxonomy and systematics

5.1 Taxonavigation

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Coraciiformes
Family: Alcedinidae
Genus: Pelargopsis Gloger, 1841
Species: Pelargopsis capensis (Linnaeus, 1766)

5.2 Nomenclature

  • Original description

Pelargopsis capensis was first described by Linnaeus in 1766 under Alcedo capensis [31] . Linnaeus based his description on Mathurin Jacques Brisson’s specimen, of which he believed had come from the Cape of Good Hope region of South Africa [32] . However, species does not occur in Africa, and it was suggested that the specimen had been obtained from Java, Indonesia. It is currently known to have come from near Chandannagar in West Bengal, India [33] . The genus Pelargopsis was later introduced by the German zoologist Constantin Gloger [34]
des1.JPG
Original description by Linnaeus. Retrieved from: Harvard University Botany Libraries (Fair Use).
Figure 11

  • Protonym, synonym and common names


Protonym: Alcedo capensis Linnaeus 1766

Synonym(s):
- Halcyon capensis (Fry, 1980)
*The sources (author name and year) of the following synonyms are unavailable*
- Ramphalcyon capensis
- Alcedo gurial
- Pelargopsis gurial

Common name(s): Brown-headed stork-billed kingfisher[35] , Common stork-billed kingfisher [36]


pelargopsis gurial.jpg
Somewhat confused nomenclature: nominate race previously believed to refer to populations of Java, and under that arrangement Indian mainland birds were placed in race gurial, which was later synonymized with capensis [37] . Photo credit: Smithsonian Institution NMNH[38] (Fair Use)
Figure 12


  • Etymology

The genus name Pelargopsis is derived from classical Greek, a combindation of pelargos meaning 'stork', and opsis meaning 'appearance'. The specific epithet, capensis, denotes the Cape of Good Hope


5.3 Phylogenetics

  • RAG-1 (Recombination activating gene) and ND2 (NADH dehydrogenase-2 gene)

RAG-1 is known to be a bird-specific gene as it has provided good resolution across varying taxonomic levels in birds [39] . Nuclear DNA (RAG-1) evolves slowly and generally provides more phylogenetic signal than mitochondrial markers (ND2) at deeper nodes in a phylogeny. Mitochondrial marker, on the other hand, evolves more quickly and is useful for resolving more closely-related taxa.

  • Pelargopsis split or merged with Halcyon ?

The monophyly of Pelargopsis capensis with the three species belonging to genus Halcyon is strongly supported by the combined analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences (highlighted yellow below).
Pelargopsis was lumped together with Halcyon by Fry (1980)[40] , while phylogeny supports splitting the two genera. Thus, merging or retaining those genera is subjective. However,the decision to split off Pelargopsis from Halcyon could be maintained to account for their difference in morphology [41] .
*Disclaimer: Ranks, except species, are arbitrary and uninformative. Taxon names, however, are necessary as communication tools and can exist without ranks.

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The phylogeny of kingfishers (Alcedinidae) reconstructed by Moyle (2006) by comparing mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences representing 38 ingroup species supported the splitting of Pelargopsis from Halcyon[42]
Figure 13

  • Unresolved relationship of Lacedo, Pelargopsis and Halcyon

On the other hand, Lacedo pulchella's sister relationship with Pelargopsis capensis and the three species belonging to genus Halcyon is weakly supported with low posterior probability and insignificant bootstrap value (highlighted in blue above), leaving the relationship between the three genera unresolved (below).

phylotree5.JPG
Bayesian consensus phylogeny of Alcedinidae genera from nuclear (RAG-1) and mtDNA (ND2) sequence data [43]
Figure 14

  • Type specimen

The available information of holotypes are P. capensis subspecies.

Type specimen for Singapore's subspecies P.c. malaccensis, formerly known as Ramhalcyon capensis hydrophilia, can be found in National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution [44] . It was collected from Singapore.

  • DNA barcoding

Sequences for mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) of the stork-billed kingfisher have been barcoded and are available here

  • Subspecies distribution

Polytypic; currently with 15 sub-species recognised. [45]




6. References


  1. ^



    Davison, G. W. H. & Y. F. Chew, 2013. A Photographic Guide To Birds Of Peninsular Malaysia And Singapore. New Holland, London.
  2. ^ The Guardian (2012). Mystery bird: stork-billed kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensis. https://www.theguardian.com/science/grrlscientist/2012/jul/16/3(Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  3. ^ Ali, S. & Ripley S.D. (1984). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Volume 4: Frogmouths to Pittas. Oxford University Press. Pp 84-85
  4. ^




    Beauty of Birds (n.d.). Stork-billed kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensis (Halcyon capensis). https://www.beautyofbirds.com/storkbilledkingfishers.html (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  5. ^ Fry, C.H. & Kathie Fry (2012). Kingfishers, Bee-eaters & Rollers. https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=U_XUBAAAQBAJ&q=stork+billed+#v=snippet&q=stork%20billed&f=false (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  6. ^ Bucknill, J.A. & Chasen, F.N. (1990). Birds of Singapore and South-East Asia. Scotland: Tynron Press. Pp 117-118
  7. ^ Beauty of Birds (n.d.). Stork-billed kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensis (Halcyon capensis). https://www.beautyofbirds.com/storkbilledkingfishers.html (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  8. ^ Young S. (2016). Stork billed Kingfisher (Pelargopsis capensis). https://thewonderfulwildlifeofsamloem.wordpress.com/stork-billed-kingfisher-pelargopsis-capensis/ (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  9. ^ Smythies, B.E. & Harrison, T. (2000). The Birds of Borneo. Natural History Publications Borneo.
  10. ^ Ali, S. & Ripley S.D. (1984). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Volume 4: Frogmouths to Pittas. Oxford University Press. Pp 84-85
  11. ^ Wells. R.D. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula: Vol. 1- Non-passerines. Academic Press. Pp 507-509
  12. ^ Faheem, M.S. (n.d.) Birds of India| Bird World- Stork-billed kingfisher. http://indianbirds.thedynamicnature.com/2017/02/stork-billed-kingfisher-pelargopsis-capensis.html (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  13. ^ Faheem, M.S. (n.d.) Birds of India| Bird World- Stork-billed kingfisher. http://indianbirds.thedynamicnature.com/2017/02/stork-billed-kingfisher-pelargopsis-capensis.html (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  14. ^ Lim, K.C. & Lim, K.S. (2009). State of Singapore’s wild birds and bird habitats: A Review of the Annual Bird Census, 1996-2005. Singapore: Nature Society (Singapore). Pp 112
  15. ^ Lim, K. S., 2009. The avifauna of Singapore. Nature Society (Singapore), Singapore. Pp 72-73
  16. ^ Beauty of Birds (n.d.). Stork-billed kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensis (Halcyon capensis). https://www.beautyofbirds.com/storkbilledkingfishers.html (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  17. ^ Young S. (2016). Stork billed Kingfisher (Pelargopsis capensis). https://thewonderfulwildlifeofsamloem.wordpress.com/stork-billed-kingfisher-pelargopsis-capensis/ (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  18. ^ Singapore Birds Project (n.d.). Stork-billed kingfisher. https://singaporebirds.com/species/stork-billed-kingfisher/ (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  19. ^




    BESG (2013). Stork-billed Kingfisher – Stealing or Feeding. http://www.besgroup.org/2013/06/08/stork-billed-kingfisher-stealing-or-feeding/ (Accessed 15 Nov 2017)
  20. ^




    Oberholser, Harry C. (1909). Revision of the kingfisher genus Ramphalcyon (Pelargopsis). Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 35: 657-680 [663-665].
  21. ^




    Beauty of Birds (n.d.). Stork-billed kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensis (Halcyon capensis). https://www.beautyofbirds.com/storkbilledkingfishers.html (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  22. ^




    Glenister A.G. (n.d.). The Birds of the Malay Peninsula, Singapore and Penang: an account of all the Malayan species, with a note of their occurrence in Sumatra, Borneo, and Java and a list of the birds of those islands. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. Pp 163
  23. ^




    Beauty of Birds (n.d.). Stork-billed kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensis (Halcyon capensis). https://www.beautyofbirds.com/storkbilledkingfishers.html (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  24. ^ Ali, S. & Ripley S.D. (1984). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Volume 4: Frogmouths to Pittas. Oxford University Press. Pp 84-85
  25. ^




    Bucknill, J.A. & Chasen, F.N. (1990). Birds of Singapore and South-East Asia. Scotland: Tynron Press. Pp 117-118
  26. ^




    Singapore Birds Project (n.d.). Stork-billed kingfisher. https://singaporebirds.com/species/stork-billed-kingfisher/ (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  27. ^ Beauty of Birds (n.d.). Stork-billed kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensis (Halcyon capensis). https://www.beautyofbirds.com/storkbilledkingfishers.html (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  28. ^


    “eBird map” by eBird (n.d.). URL: http://ebird.org/ebird/map/stbkin1?neg=true&env.minX=&env.minY=&env.maxX=&env.maxY=&zh=false&gp=false&ev=Z&mr=1-12&bmo=1&emo=12&yr=all&byr=1900&eyr=2017 (accessed on 14 Nov 2017).
  29. ^ del Hoyo, J., Collar, N.J., Christie, D.A., Elliott, A. and Fishpool, L.D.C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Non-passerines. Lynx Edicions BirdLife International, Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge, UK.
  30. ^ Singapore Birds Project (n.d.). Stork-billed kingfisher. https://singaporebirds.com/species/stork-billed-kingfisher/ (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  31. ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1766). Systema naturae : per regna tria natura, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Volume 1, Part 1 (12th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 180.
  32. ^ Brisson, Mathurin Jacques (1760). Ornithologie, ou, Méthode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres, sections, genres, especes & leurs variétés: Supplement d'Ornithologie. Volume 4. Paris: Jean-Baptiste Bauche. p. 488, Plate 36 Fig. 3.
  33. ^ Woodall, P.F.; Kirwan, G.M. (2017). del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; de Juana, E., eds. "Stork-billed Kingfisher (//Pelargopsis capensis//)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions. Retrieved 10 June 2017
  34. ^ Gloger, Constantin Wilhelm Lambert. Gemeinnütziges Hand- und Hilfsbuch der Naturgeschichte (in German). Breslau: A. Schulz. p. 338.
  35. ^ Faheem, M.S. (n.d.) Birds of India| Bird World- Stork-billed kingfisher. http://indianbirds.thedynamicnature.com/2017/02/stork-billed-kingfisher-pelargopsis-capensis.html (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  36. ^ Fry, C.H. & Kathie Fry (2012). Kingfishers, Bee-eaters & Rollers. https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=U_XUBAAAQBAJ&q=stork+billed+#v=snippet&q=stork%20billed&f=false (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  37. ^


    Woodall, P.F.; Kirwan, G.M. (2017). del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; de Juana, E., eds. "Stork-billed Kingfisher (//Pelargopsis capensis//)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive//. Lynx Edicions. Retrieved 10 June 2017
  38. ^ Sharpe, B.R. (1868-1871). A Monograph of the Alcedinidae: or, Family of Kingfishers. https://sites.google.com/site/mmslouis/richardbowdlersharpe,amonographofthealce (Accessed on 15 Nov 2017).
  39. ^ Moyle, R. G. 2005. Phylogeny and biogeographical history of Trogoniformes, a pantropical bird order. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 84:725–738
  40. ^ Fry, C.H. & Kathie Fry (2012). Kingfishers, Bee-eaters & Rollers. https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=U_XUBAAAQBAJ&q=stork+billed+#v=snippet&q=stork%20billed&f=false (Accessed 05 Nov 2017)
  41. ^ Moyle, R. G. (2006). A molecular phylogeny of kingfishers (Aledinidae) with insights into early biogeographic history. Auk 123: 487-499.
  42. ^


    Moyle, R. G. (2006). A molecular phylogeny of kingfishers (Aledinidae) with insights into early biogeographic history. Auk 123: 487-499.
  43. ^ Moyle, R. G. (2006). A molecular phylogeny of kingfishers (Aledinidae) with insights into early biogeographic history. Auk 123: 487-499.
  44. ^ Smithsonian Instituion NMNH (n.d.). Type specimen of Pelargopsis capensis malaccensishttp.
    https://collections.nmnh.si.edu/search/birds/?ark=ark:/65665/3a15ea8ba054949babf65891669dd1c09 (Accessed on 1 Dec 2017)
  45. ^ Woodall, P.F.; Kirwan, G.M. (2017). del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; de Juana, E., eds. "Stork-billed Kingfisher (//Pelargopsis capensis//)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions. Retrieved 10 June 2017